CULTURE

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Hierarchical attitudes and patron-client relationships among and within various groups and sub-groups persist largely because they are underpinned by the inegalitarianism implicit in the notion of hpoun. Unequal relations, and the repression and exploitation that derive from them, are accepted as "natural". Moreover, the oppressed are encouraged not to seek justice, but rather to replace corrupt rulers with a superior hpoun agency, while retaining the overall hierarchical power structure. Clearly, the hpoun discourse is not something that Burmese society can easily do away with. Nor is it likely that most Burmese would even consider its elimination a desirable goal. The foremost blessing one can receive when paying homage to monks and elders is, "May you have great hpoun." For Burmese, indeed, the quest for hpoun is the paramount goal of life, one that lasts until the day one dies. In a society that has retained many pre-modern characteristics such as Burma, symbols, rituals and ceremonies related to hpoun serve as an essential means of reinforcing the hegemonic ideology of the ruling clique. This has been especially conspicuous under the current regime, which has made extensive use of hpoun symbols in its efforts to acquire legitimacy in the eyes of ordinary Burmese (while using the language of realpolitik in its bid to win acceptance in the international community). Evidence of this curiously anachronistic mindset (in a regime that professes to be working to establish a "modern, developed nation") came recently in the form of an eight-year-old white male elephant discovered in the forests of western Burma’s Arakan State. In what to the outside world must have looked like a quaint reenactment of an outdated custom, several magnificent ceremonies were held to give the country’s two top-ranking generals, Sr-Gen Than Shwe and Gen Maung Aye, a chance to sprinkle consecrated water on this auspicious beast. For the discovery of a white elephant, in the ancient lore of Theravada Buddhism, is regarded as nothing less than a cosmic endorsement of the reigning king—or in this instance, generals. The significance of the white elephant is derived from Buddhist nativity tales, according to which the mother of Siddhartha Gotama had a dream of a white elephant entering her womb on the eve of the birth of the Buddha-to-be. This was taken as a sign of the child’s purity, wisdom and auspiciousness. Later, ancient texts and traditional scriptures would describe the white elephant as one of the seven jewels of King Cakravartin. In Burmese history, the white elephant has often played an important role as an embodiment of the ruling monarch’s hpoun. Kings hunted eagerly for these sacred animals, and occasionally presented them to one another as marks of diplomacy. Sometimes they fought over them. According to Burmese and Thai chronicles, the Burmese king Bayinnaung took four white elephants back to the court of Hanthawaddy after he subjugated Ayutthaya in the 16th century, following a dispute with the King of Ayutthaya over the latter’s refusal to send two white elephants requested by the former. Bayinnaung was seen not as an expansionist, but as one of the greatest kings described in the indigenous literature and the chronicles of the region. Later rulers sought to attain his illustrious reputation as Hsinbyushin ("Lord of the White Elephant"). The current regime has invoked this tradition by naming its recent find "Yaza Gaha Thiri Pissaya Gaza Yaza", meaning "Royal Elephant That Bestows Grace Upon the Nation" in the ancient Pali language. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that the regime is merely exploiting tradition to manipulate the superstitious public; in all probability, the generals sincerely believe that the elephant is a divine blessing and a sign that their rule is one ordained by the cosmic law of kamma. On this level, at least, their perception of reality is not wholly different from that of ordinary Burmese. This unity in faith plays a significant role in maintaining the social and political status quo in Burma. It should be noted, however, that hpoun is inherently unstable, and must be constantly reinforced and remade. Moreover, the hpoun discourse can also become a site of ideological contention. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, leader of the Burmese democracy movement, has directly challenged the more fatalistic interpretation of the doctrine of kamma that supports the hpoun discourse by emphasizing the importance of present kamma (that is, wholesome or unwholesome acts that bear like results) to encourage Burmese people to take a more active role in changing their destiny. However, such attempts to counter the hegemonic discourse of hpoun have been effectively sidelined by more conventional interpretations that enjoin a passive acceptance of one’s "fate". Interestingly, the figure of the white elephant offers the most compelling evidence of a counter-discourse to the principle of hpoun as it is propagated to perpetuate the supremacy of ascendant groups.